Citing references in text

There are two main approaches to citing references in the text: superscript numerals and author/date. For both, comprehensive source information is gathered in a reference list at the end of the document. Do not include footnotes in a reference list, and vice versa. A footnote contains explanatory or supplementary information; it belongs at the bottom of the page on which it is cited. For documents with both footnotes and endnotes (references), use superscript lowercase letters for the footnotes and superscript Arabic numerals for the references.

This approach—using superscript numerals—is used in most scientific documents and is therefore recommended at PATH. One exception: some journals prefer references numbers on the line (i.e., not superscript) and in square brackets. Either way, each source is assigned a number in the order in which it is cited in the text. Here's an example:

• In a large observational study conducted in the 1980s, women using the fit-free, non-spermicide diaphragm regimen had very few pregnancies.¹ An evaluation performed in 1995, however, demonstrated a much higher pregnancy rate.² A more recent publication notes that the effectiveness of diaphragms depends on the user.³

Superscript numerals go after all punctuation except em dashes:

• Each year, approximately 57 million women worldwide give birth without the help of a trained health worker.⁴
• Each year, approximately 57 million women worldwide give birth without the help of a trained health worker⁴—help that could greatly reduce maternal and neonatal mortality.

There is no space between multiple superscript reference numbers and commas (e.g.,¹˒²). Also, ranges take a superscript en dash (e.g.,¹⁻³). Do not place footnote or reference citations in document titles or headings.

References in figures and tables are numbered as if the figure or table is part of the text; for example, if a figure or table is placed after references 1 through 3 have appeared in the text, any references in the figure or table (assuming they are first-time references and not cross-references) would be numbered starting with 4.

Using this approach, each source retains its assigned number and therefore appears only once in the reference list. When more than one passage in the text refers to the same source, staff must insert the number corresponding to that source (e.g., if re-citing source 1, insert ¹ in the text).

References can be added either manually or using the Endnote function in Word. These methods have very different outcomes when text is moved after the references have been sequenced:

• If entered manually, staff must re-sequence the numbers in both the text and the reference list so they appear in numerical order.
• If entered using the Endnote function, the numbers in both the text and list will re-sequence automatically, but updating multiple instances of the same source requires two extra steps: they must be cross-referenced initially (which creates a field in Word) and the fields must be refreshed.

Microsoft Word tip: To insert a cross-reference in Word, go to the References tab | Cross-reference. In the pop-up box, select the Reference type [in this case, Endnote]; click on the correct endnote, and then click Insert. You will also need to manually superscript the number.

Cross-references do not automatically update (refresh) if you change the order of or remove any endnotes. To refresh an individual cross-reference, hover your cursor over it, then right click and choose Update Field. To update all cross-references at once, press Ctrl + A to select all the text, then right click and choose Update Field.

In the reference list

Using this approach, the complete source information is presented numerically in the reference list.

This approach—citing the author/date—is found less commonly at PATH. In this approach, the author name(s) and publication year appear in parentheses in the text and refer to citations in a reference list. The parenthetical information appears inside the closing punctuation. Here's an example:

• In a large observational study conducted in the 1980s, women using the fit-free, non-spermicide diaphragm regimen had very few pregnancies (Stim 1980). An evaluation performed in 1995, however, demonstrated a much higher pregnancy rate (Smith et al. 1995), and a more recent publication notes that the effectiveness of diaphragms depends on the user (WHO and The Johns Hopkins University 2018).

When two or more sources refer to the same passage in the text, list them alphabetically, separated by semicolons:

• (Smith et al. 1995; Stim 1980; WHO and The Johns Hopkins University 2018).

In the reference list

Using this approach, the complete source information is listed alphabetically by author in the reference list.